Chapter 11 Paths To Modernisation

Introduction

At the dawn of the nineteenth century, East Asia was dominated by China, a vast nation with a long tradition, while Japan, a small island country, pursued a policy of isolation. Within decades, China faced turmoil, losing political control and struggling to reform against colonial challenges, leading to civil war and the eventual victory of the Communist Party in 1949. Despite early attempts at ideological economic systems, reforms in the late 1970s reintroduced capitalism and market principles while maintaining Communist Party rule. Japan, in contrast, successfully modernized, building an industrial economy and a colonial empire, defeating both China and Russia. Its modernization was driven by capitalist principles and a desire to resist Western domination, demonstrating the strength of its traditions, its ability to learn, and its nationalism. The chapter highlights the different paths taken by China and Japan towards modernization, examining their historical contexts, sources of information, and the impact of their encounters with Western imperialism and their own internal developments.

Contrast Between China and Japan

At the beginning of the nineteenth century, China, a vast continental power, seemed secure, while Japan, a small island nation, was isolated. However, China faced turmoil and colonial challenges, while Japan successfully modernized, built an industrial economy, and even established a colonial empire.

Japanese Modernisation and Nationalism

Japan's path to modernization was built on capitalist principles, aiming to resist Western domination and liberate Asia. This rapid development underscored the strength of its traditions, its capacity for learning, and its potent nationalism.

Chinese Struggles for Sovereignty and Development

China reacted slowly to modernization challenges, facing immense difficulties in redefining traditions, rebuilding national strength, and achieving freedom from Western and Japanese control, ultimately pursuing revolution to meet these objectives.

Sources of Historical Information

Both China and Japan have rich traditions of historical writing, with official departments maintaining records and writing dynastic histories. Modern scholarship benefits from these extensive written materials, as well as accounts from European travelers and missionaries, and contemporary Chinese and Japanese scholars.

China

China, a vast continental country, is characterized by diverse climatic zones and dominated by three major river systems: the Yellow River, the Yangtze River, and the Pearl River. While the Han people are the dominant ethnic group speaking Chinese (Putonghua), numerous other nationalities and languages exist. Its regional diversity is reflected in its cuisine, with distinct styles like Cantonese (southern), northern wheat-based, Szechuan (spicy), and eastern Chinese (rice and wheat). China's modern history has been shaped by the quest to regain sovereignty, end foreign humiliation, and achieve equality and development. Early encounters with Western sciences, introduced by Jesuit missionaries in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, laid the groundwork for later changes. The Opium Wars in the nineteenth century undermined the ruling Qing dynasty, increasing demands for reform. Early reformers like Kang Youwei and Liang Qichao sought to modernize by adapting traditional ideas, while republican revolutionaries like Sun Yat-sen advocated for nationalism, democracy, and socialism, inspired by Western and Japanese models. The abolition of the centuries-old examination system in 1905, which favored literary skills over science and technology, marked a significant shift. The overthrow of the Manchu empire in 1911 led to the establishment of a republic under Sun Yat-sen, but political instability persisted, with the Guomindang and the Communist Party of China (CCP) emerging as major forces. The CCP, under Mao Zedong, based its revolutionary program on the peasantry, eventually defeating the Guomindang. Mao's radical approach emphasized ideological transformation and mass mobilization, including collectivization and the Great Leap Forward, but also led to the turmoil of the Cultural Revolution. Post-1978 reforms introduced a socialist market economy, allowing debate but maintaining Communist Party control, leading to economic growth alongside concerns about rising inequalities and the revival of traditional ideas. The story of Taiwan, a former Japanese colony returned to China, highlights a path towards democracy and economic prosperity, while Korea's modernization involved resisting Japanese colonial rule, enduring division and war, and achieving remarkable economic growth through state-led, export-oriented policies.

Geography and Demographics

China is a vast continental country with diverse climates, dominated by major river systems and mountainous regions. It has a dominant Han ethnic group but also numerous minority nationalities and languages, reflected in its varied regional cuisines.

Traditional Political System (Qing Dynasty)

The Qing dynasty, heir to a long tradition, ruled China for centuries, characterized by a hierarchical administrative system and a focus on Confucian ideals of governance and social order.

Encounters with the West and Internal Turmoil

China's initial encounters with Western sciences in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries were limited, but the Opium Wars in the nineteenth century severely undermined the Qing dynasty, leading to demands for reform and internal turmoil.

Reform Movements

Various reform movements emerged, including early reformers seeking to adapt traditional ideas, republican revolutionaries inspired by Western and Japanese models, and the Communist Party aiming to overthrow foreign imperialism and establish equality.

The Republican Revolution and Sun Yat-sen

The overthrow of the Manchu empire in 1911 led to the establishment of a republic under Sun Yat-sen, whose "Three Principles" (nationalism, democracy, socialism) guided the new government.

The Communist Revolution and Mao Zedong

Mao Zedong led the Communist Party of China to victory in 1949, basing his revolution on the peasantry and implementing radical social and economic policies.

The Great Leap Forward and Cultural Revolution

Mao's policies aimed at rapid industrialization and ideological transformation, including the Great Leap Forward (1958) and the Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution (1966-76), which brought significant social upheaval and economic disruption.

Economic Reforms and Deng Xiaoping

Following Mao's death, Deng Xiaoping introduced market-oriented economic reforms in 1978, promoting a "socialist market economy" that led to significant economic growth but also increased social inequalities.

The Story of Taiwan

Taiwan, a former Japanese colony, was returned to China after World War II. Despite a repressive government under Chiang Kai-shek, it achieved remarkable economic growth and later transitioned towards democracy.

The Story of Korea

Korea's modernization efforts in the late nineteenth century were overshadowed by Japanese annexation in 1910. After liberation in 1945, Korea was divided, leading to the Korean War and subsequent rapid economic growth under a state-led, export-oriented policy, eventually transitioning to democracy.

Japan

Japan, an island nation, underwent significant transformations from its traditional political system under the Tokugawa Shogunate (1603-1867). The Shogunate exercised power through daimyo (lords) and samurai (warriors), maintaining peace and order by disarming the peasantry, controlling major cities and mines, and requiring daimyo to reside in the capital, Edo (modern Tokyo). This period saw the growth of cities, a commercial economy, and a shift towards valuing individual merit over status. The Tale of Genji, a work by the woman writer Murasaki Shikibu, depicted the aristocratic life of the Heian court, showcasing the independence of women. In 1853, Commodore Matthew Perry of the USA demanded the end of Japan's seclusion policy, prompting the Meiji Restoration in 1868, which restored the Emperor to power and moved the capital to Tokyo. The government launched a policy of "fukoku kyohei" (rich country, strong army) to modernize the economy and military, fearing subjugation by Western powers. A new school system was established, emphasizing loyalty and Japanese history alongside Western ideas. The Meiji government also imposed a new administrative structure, reorganized the military, and set up a legal system, facing opposition but strengthening the emperor system. The economy was modernized through agricultural taxes, railways, imported textile machinery, modern banking, and the growth of zaibatsu (family-controlled business conglomerates). Japan's population grew, and migration was encouraged to Hokkaido and abroad. Industrialization led to environmental issues, sparking early protests. Aggressive nationalism grew, leading to wars with China and Russia and the establishment of a colonial empire. The Meiji constitution created a Diet with limited powers, while the military and bureaucracy remained under the emperor's direct command, leading to tension between democratic aspirations and aggressive foreign policy. The debate between "Westernization" and preserving "tradition" influenced Japanese intellectuals, with some advocating for shedding Asian characteristics to embrace the West, while others emphasized indigenous values and a more balanced approach. Changes in daily life included the shift towards nuclear families, new domestic goods, and improved urban transport and entertainment, contributing to a vibrant, though often contradictory, modernization process.

Traditional Political System (Tokugawa Shogunate)

From 1603 to 1867, Japan was ruled by the Tokugawa Shogunate, which maintained peace and order by controlling daimyo, disarming the peasantry, and centralizing power in Edo.

Social and Intellectual Changes

The Tokugawa period saw the growth of cities, a commercial economy, and a vibrant culture, with increased literacy and the emergence of women writers like Murasaki Shikibu, reflecting a growing appreciation for individual merit and intellectual pursuits.

The Meiji Restoration

In 1868, a movement restored the Emperor to power, ending the Shogunate and initiating a period of rapid modernization driven by the slogan "fukoku kyohei" (rich country, strong army).

The Emperor System and National Unity

The Meiji government established an "emperor system" to foster national unity and loyalty, portraying the emperor as a descendant of the Sun Goddess and a leader of Westernization, while also using him to legitimize modern institutions.

Modernisation of the Economy

Japan modernized its economy through agricultural taxes, railway construction, importing textile machinery, establishing modern banking, and supporting large business organizations (zaibatsu) to boost trade and compete with Western goods.

Industrial Workers and Environmental Issues

Industrialization led to a significant increase in the number of factory workers, particularly women and children, often facing poor conditions. Early protests against industrial pollution, like those led by Tanaka Shozo, highlighted the environmental impact of rapid industrial growth.

Aggressive Nationalism and Military Expansion

Driven by fears of Western domination and a desire for territorial expansion, Japan developed a strong military, leading to wars with China and Russia and the establishment of a colonial empire, often at the expense of democratic development at home.

Westernisation vs. Tradition

Japanese intellectuals debated the extent of Western influence, with some advocating for shedding "Asian" characteristics to embrace Western culture, while others stressed national pride based on indigenous values and sought a balance between tradition and modernity.

Changes in Daily Life

Modernization brought changes in daily life, including a shift towards nuclear families, new domestic goods, improved urban transport (electric trams), public parks, department stores, and the rise of popular culture through radio and cinema.

Overcoming Modernity and Post-War Rebuilding

Japan's aggressive nationalism led to defeat in World War II, followed by demilitarization and a new constitution under US occupation. The subsequent rapid economic recovery, termed a "miracle," was built on strong leadership, a capable workforce, US support, and a blend of traditional social cohesion with modern economic practices.

Two Roads to Modernisation

Japan and China embarked on distinct paths to modernization, shaped by their unique historical contexts and responses to external pressures. Japan's elite-driven modernization, while successful in achieving economic and military strength and retaining independence, fostered an aggressive nationalism that led to war and environmental damage. This process involved creatively adapting traditions to modern needs, such as integrating Western educational models with emphasis on loyalty and national history. China's path was marked by foreign imperialism, a hesitant Qing dynasty, and internal turmoil, leading to a rejection of tradition and a search for national unity through revolution. The Communist Party, under Mao Zedong, pursued radical social and economic restructuring, emphasizing ideology over expertise, which resulted in the Cultural Revolution. Post-Mao reforms introduced market principles while maintaining Communist Party control, leading to economic growth but also rising inequalities. The differing historical conditions, responses to foreign influence, and internal political developments led Japan and China on divergent paths, with Japan achieving rapid modernization through a blend of tradition and Westernization, while China's journey involved revolution, ideological shifts, and market reforms.

Comparison of Japanese and Chinese Paths

Japan pursued a path of elite-driven modernization, adapting traditions while embracing Western technology and ideas, leading to economic and military strength but also aggressive nationalism. China's path involved revolution to overcome foreign imperialism and internal inequalities, with periods of radical ideological change followed by market reforms.

Role of Tradition in Modernisation

Both countries creatively used their traditions in their modernization efforts. Japan integrated traditional values like loyalty and emperor worship into its modern education system, while China grappled with Confucianism, seeking ways to adapt or reject traditional ideas to meet modern challenges.

Impact of Nationalism and Imperialism

Japanese modernization was fueled by a fear of Western domination and a desire to liberate Asia, which paradoxically justified its own imperial ambitions. Chinese modernization was driven by the need to resist foreign imperialism and regain sovereignty.

Legacy of Modernisation

Japan's modernization resulted in economic power but also fostered a repressive regime and a legacy of regional hatred. China's path brought economic growth and removed centuries-old inequalities but also involved political control and social tensions, leaving ongoing debates about balancing development with heritage.